Statistical expertise provided no advantage in the eight-item version hiv infection cd4 order 4mg atacand free shipping, in which the critical items were separated by a filler and were presumably considered separately hiv infection elisa order atacand 4 mg on line. Most of the experts followed logic rather than intuition when they recognized that one of the categories contained the other hiv infection leads to depletion of order atacand 4 mg with visa. Stanovich and West (Chapter 24 life cycle of hiv infection 4 mg atacand with amex, this volume) and Stanovich (1999) observed a generally negative correlation between conventional measures of intelligence and susceptibility to judgment biases hiv infection rates rising atacand 8 mg without a prescription. They used transparent versions of the problems diferencia entre antiviral y vacuna buy online atacand, which provide adequate cues to the correct answer and therefore provide a test of reasoning rationality hiv infection rate who buy 16mg atacand otc. Not surprisingly antiviral soap buy atacand overnight, intelligent people are more likely to possess the relevant logical rules and also to recognize the applicability of these rules in particular situations. When a problem is too difficult for everyone, however, the correlation is likely to reverse because the more intelligent respondents are more likely to agree on a plausible error than to respond randomly (Kahneman, 2000b). The frequency representation also makes it easier to visualize partitions of sets and detect that one set is contained in another. As a consequence, the conjunction fallacy is generally avoided in direct tests, in which the frequency format makes it easy to recognize that feminist bank tellers are a subset of bank tellers (Gigerenzer & Hoffrage, 1995; Tversky & Kahneman, 1983). For similar reasons, some base-rate problems are more easily solved when couched in frequencies than in probabilities or percentages (Cosmides & Tooby, 1996). However, there is little support for the more general claims about the evolutionary adaptation of the mind to deal with frequencies (Evans et al. Furthermore, the ranking of outcomes by predicted relative frequency is very similar to the ranking of the same outcomes by representativeness (Mellers, Hertwig, & Kahneman, 2001). The weight of neglected variables can be increased by drawing attention to them, and experimenters have devised many ingenious ways to do so. Krosnick, Li, and Lehman (1990), exploited conversational conventions about the sequencing of information and confirmed that the impact of base-rate information was enhanced by presenting that information after the personality description rather than before it. Attention to the base-rate is also enhanced when participants observe the drawing of descriptions from an urn (Gigerenzer, Hell, & Blank, 1988), perhaps because watching the draw induces conscious expectations that reflect the known proportions of possible outcomes. The conjunction fallacy can also be reduced or eliminated by manipulations that increase the accessibility of the relevant rule, including some linguistic variations (Macchi, 1995), and practice with logical problems (Agnoli, 1991; Agnoli & Krantz, 1989). We assume that most participants in judgment studies know, at least vaguely, that the base-rate is relevant and that the conjunction rule is valid (Kahneman & Tversky, 1982). Whether they apply this knowledge to override an intuitive judgment depends on their cognitive skills (education, intelligence) and on formulations that make the applicability of a rule apparent (frequency format) or a relevant factor more salient (manipulations of attention). We assume that intuitions are less sensitive to these factors, and that the appearance or disappearance of biases mainly reflects variations in the efficacy of corrective operations. This conclusion would be circular, of course, if the corrective operations were both inferred from the observation of correct performance and used to explain that performance. The relative virtues of between-subjects and within subjects designs in studies of judgment are a highly contentious issue. Our narrower point is that between-subjects designs are more appropriate for the study of heuristics of judgment. The message that the design conveys to the participants is that the experimenter expects to find effects of every factor that is manipulated (Bar-Hillel & Fischhoff, 1981; Schwarz, 1996). These features encourage participants to adopt simple mechanical rules that will allow them to respond quickly, without forming an individuated impression of each stimulus. For example, Ordonez and Benson (1997) required respondents to judge the attractiveness of gambles on a 100-point scale. They found that under time pressure many respondents computed or estimated the expected values of the gambles and used the results as attractiveness ratings. This is a central conclusion of a massive research effort conducted by Anderson and colleagues (see Anderson, 1996), who observed that people often average or add where they should multiply. In summary, the factorial design is not appropriate for testing hypotheses about biases of neglect, because it effectively guarantees that no manipulated factor is neglected. The experiments summarized in the different panels share three important features: (1) In each case, the quantitative variable plotted on the abscissa was completely neglected in similar experiments conducted in a between-subjects or subtle design; (2) in each case, the quantitative variable combines additively with other information; (3) in each case, a compelling normative argument can be made for a quasi-multiplicative rule in which the lines shown in Fig. The effect of base rate is clearly significant in this design (see also Birnbaum and Mellers, 1983). Furthermore, the effects of representativeness and base-rate are strictly additive. As Anderson (1996) argued, averaging (a special case of additive combination) is the most obvious way to combine the effects of two variables that are recognized as relevant. Between-subjects and factorial designs often yield different results in studies of intuitive judgment. Rapidly successive encounters with objects of rigidly controlled structure are unique to the laboratory, and the solutions that they evoke are not likely to be typical. The between-subjects design in contrast, mimics the haphazard encounters in which most judgments are made and is more likely to evoke the casually intuitive mode of judgment that governs much of mental life in routine situations. We propose that a generalization of the representativeness heuristic accounts for the remarkably similar biases that are observed in these diverse tasks. The original analysis of categorical prediction by representativeness (Kahneman & Tversky 1973; Tversky & Kahneman, 1983) invoked two assumptions in which the word representative was used in different ways: (1) a prototype (a representative exemplar) is used to represent categories. Perhaps because they share a label, the two processes have not been distinguished in discussions of the representativeness heuristic. We separate them here by describing prototype heuristics, in which a prototype is substituted for its category, but in which representativenessis not necessarily the heuristic attribute. Normative judgments of extensional attributes are governed by a general principle of conditional adding, which dictates that each element of the set adds to the overall judgment an amount that depends on the elements already included. In other cases, each element of the set contributes to the overall judgment, but the combination rule is not simple addition and is typically subadditive. For example, the economic value of protecting X birds should be increasing in X, but the value of saving 2,000 birds is for most people less than twice as large as the value of saving 1,000 birds. The logic of categorical prediction entails that the probability of membership in a category should vary with its relative size, or base-rate. In prediction by representativeness, however, the representation of outcomes by prototypical exemplars effectively discards base-rates, because the prototype of a category. Next, we show that phenomena analogous to the neglect of base-rate are observed in other prototype heuristics: the monetary value attached to a public good is often insensitive to itsscope and the global evaluations of a temporally extended experience is often insensitive to itsduration. These various instantiations of extension neglect (neglect of base rates, scope, and duration) have been discussed in separate literatures, but all can be explained by the two-part process that defines prototype heuristics: (1) a category is represented by a prototypical exemplar, and (2) a (nonextensional) property of the prototype is then used as a heuristic attribute to evaluate an extensional target attribute of the category. As might be expected from the earlier discussion of base-rate neglect, extension neglect in all its forms is most likely to be observed in between-subjects experiments. Within-subject factorial designs consistently yield the additive extension effectillustrated in Fig. The best-known demonstration of scope neglect is an experiment by Desvouges et al. A straightforward interpretation of this result involves the two acts of substitution that characterize prototype heuristics. The deaths of numerous birds are first represented by a prototypical instance, perhaps an image of a bird soaked in oil and drowning. Other examples of radical insensitivity to scope lend themselves to a similar interpretation. Among others, Kahneman and Knetsch (see Kahneman, 1986) found that Toronto residents were willing to pay almost as much to clean up polluted lakes in a small region of Ontario as to clean up all the polluted lakes in Ontario, and McFadden and Leonard (1993) reported that residents in four western states were willing to pay only 28% more to protect 57 wilderness area than to protect a single area (for more discussion of scope insensitivity, see Frederick & Fischhoff, 1998). The two responses also yield similar results when extension and prototype information are varied factorially within subjects. This rule of combination is unreasonable; in any plausible theory of value the lines would fan out. Finally, the role of the emotion evoked by a prototypical instance was also examined directly in the same experiment, using the heuristic elicitation paradigm introduced earlier. Some respondents were asked to imagine that they saw a television program documenting the effect of adverse ecological circumstances on individual members of different species. The respondents indicated, for each species, how much concern they expected to feel while watching such a documentary. The correlation between this measure of affect and willingness to pay, computed across species, was. Duration Neglect in the Evaluation of Experiences We next discuss experimental studies of the global evaluation of experiences that extend over some time, such as a pleasant or a horrific film clip (Fredrickson & Kahneman, 1993), a prolonged unpleasant noise (Schreiber & Kahneman, 2000), pressure from a vise (Ariely, 1998), or a painful medical procedure (Redelmeier & Kahneman, 1996). Participants in these studies provided a continuous or intermittent report of hedonic or affective state, using a designated scale of momentary affect (Fig. The global evaluation of a temporally extended outcome is an extensional attribute, which is governed by a distinctive logic. The most obvious rule is temporal monotonicity: there is a compelling intuition that adding an extra period of pain to an episode of discomfort can only make it worse overall. Formal analyses have identified conditions under which the total utility of an episode is equal to the temporal integral of a suitably transformed measure of the instantaneous utility associated with each moment (Kahneman, 2000d; Kahneman, Wakker, & Sarin, 1997). The snapshot model was tested in an experiment in which participants provided continuous ratings of their affect while watching plotless films that varied in duration and affective value. The central finding was that the retrospective evaluations of these observers were predicted with substantial accuracy by a simple average of the Peak Affect recorded during a film and the End Affect reported as the film was about to end. However, the correlation between retrospective evaluations and the duration of the films was negligible, a finding that Fredrickson and Kahneman labeled duration neglect. The resemblance of duration neglect to the neglect of scope and base-rate is striking, and unlikely to be accidental. In the present analysis, all three are manifestations of extension neglect, caused by the use of a prototype heuristic. The Peak/End Rule and duration neglect have both been confirmed on multiple occasions. Here again, an average of Peak/End pain quite accurately predicted subsequent global evaluations and choices. The duration of the procedure varied considerably among patients (from 4 to 69 minutes), but these differences were not reflected in subsequent global evaluations, in accord with duration neglect. However, it is also apparent that the Peak/End average was worse for patient A, whose procedure ended at a moment of relatively intense pain. The Peak/End rule prediction for these two profiles is that A would evaluate the procedure more negatively than B, and would be more more likely to prefer to undergo a barium enema rather than a repeat colonoscopy. The prediction was correct for these two individuals, and confirmed by the data of a large group of patients. The effects of substantial variations of duration remained small (though statistically robust) even in studies conducted in a factorial design. The Peak/End average accounted for 98% of the systematic variance of global evaluations in that study and 88% of the variance in a similar factorial study of responses to loud unpleasant sounds (Schreiber & Kahneman, 2000, panel 3b). Contrary to the normative standard for an extensional attribute, the effects of duration and other determinants of evaluation were additive (see panels b and d in Figure 3). The participants in these studies were well aware of the relative duration of their experiences and did not consciously decide to ignore duration in their evaluations. Duration neglect might be overcome, we suppose, by drawing attention more explicitly to the attribute of time. This comment applies equally well to other instances of extension neglect: the neglect of base rate in categorical prediction, the neglect of scope in willingness to pay, the neglect of sample size in evaluations of evidence (Griffin & Tversky, 1992; Tversky & Kahneman, 1971), and the neglect of probability of success in evaluating a program of species preservation (DeKay & McClelland, 1995). More generally, inattention plays a similar role in any situation in which the intuitive judgments generated by System 1 violate rules that would be accepted as valid by the more deliberate reasoning that we associate with System 2. As we noted earlier, the responsibility for these judgmental mishaps is properly shared by the two systems: System 1 produces the initial error, and System 2 fails to correct it, although it could. Violations of Dominance the conjunction fallacy observed in the Linda problem is an example of a dominance violation in judgment: Linda must be at least as likely to be a bank teller as to be a feminist bank teller, but people believe the opposite. Insensitivity to extension (in this case, base-rate) effectively guarantees the existence of such dominance violations. If people use an impression of violence as a heuristic and neglect geographic extension, their estimates of murders in the city may exceed their estimates for the state. Violations of dominance akin to the conjunction fallacy have been observed in several other experiments, involving both indirect (between-subjects) and direct tests. In a clinical experiment reported by Redelmeier, Katz, and Kahneman (2001), half of a large group of patients (N= 682) undergoing a colonoscopy were randomly assigned to a condition that made the actual experience strictly worse. Unbeknownst to the patient, the physician deliberately delayed the removal of the colonoscope for approximately 1 minute beyond the normal time. For many patients, the mild discomfort of that extra period was an improvement relative to the pain than they had just experienced. For these patients, of course, prolonging the procedure reduced the Peak/End average of discomfort. As expected, retrospective evaluations were less negative in the experimental group. Remarkably, a 5-year follow-up showed that participants in that group were also somewhat more likely to comply with recommendations to undergo a repeat colonoscopy (Redermeier, Katz, & Kahneman, 2001). In an experiment that is directly analogous to the demonstrations of the conjunction fallacy, Kahneman et al. When they were later asked which of the two experiences they preferred to repeat, a substantial majority chose the long trial. These choices violate dominance, because after 60 seconds in cold water most people prefer the immediate experience of a warm towel to 30 extra seconds of slowly diminishing pain. The participants listened to both sounds and chose one to be repeated at the end of the session. The long noise consisted of the short noise plus an extra period (of up to 24 sec) at 66 db (less aversive, but still unpleasant and certainly worse than silence). Here again, the longer noise was preferred most of the time, and this unlikely preference persisted over a series of five choices. The violations of dominance in these direct tests are particularly surprising because the situation is completely transparent. The participants in the experiments could easily retrieve the durations of the two experiences between which they had to choose, but the results suggest that they simply ignored duration. Soon after the choice was recorded, the participant was asked which of the two experiences was longer. Like the demonstrations of the conjunction fallacy in direct tests (discussed earlier), violations of temporal monotonicity in choices should be viewed as an expendable flourish. Because the two aversive experiences occurred within a few minutes of each other, and because respondents could recall accurately the duration of the two events, System 2 had enough information to override choosing by liking. Its failure to do so is analogous to the failure of people to appreciate the set inclusion rule in direct tests of the conjunction fallacy. In both cases, the violations of dominance tell us nothing new about System 1; they only illustrate an unexpected weakness of System 2. Between-subjects experiments or subtle tests are most appropriate for studying the basic intuitive evaluations of System 1, and also most likely to reveal complete extension neglect. Factorial designs in which extension is manipulated practically guarantee an effect of this variable, and almost guarantee that it will be additive, as in Figures 2. Finally, although direct choices sometimes yield systematic violations of dominance, these violations can be avoided by manipulations that prompt System 2 to take control. In our view, the similarity of the results obtained in diverse contexts is a compelling argument for a unified interpretation, and a significant challenge to critiques that pertain only to selected subsets of this body of evidence. However, these interpretations are generally specific to a particular task and would not carry over to analogous findings in other domains. Similarly, the various attempts to explain the conjunction fallacy as an artifact do not explain analogous violations of dominance in the cold pressor experiment.
These studies on Brassica will serve as a model on which risk assessment studies of insect-pollinated cultivars can be based hiv infection symptoms mouth discount atacand 16mg online. Prat in 1934 antiviral state buy generic atacand from india, and has since been studied extensively by a number of scientists in Europe and the United States hiv infection rates in philadelphia generic atacand 8 mg amex. Bradshaw and his students hiv infection management atacand 16 mg fast delivery, in particular hiv infection woman to man order atacand 16 mg visa, have conducted extensive experiments on the evolutionary properties of plants growing in contaminated sites antiviral drugs pdf cheap atacand 16mg mastercard, such as mine spoils antiviral valtrex purchase atacand with visa. Their 1 findings include the following: plants growing in contaminated sites are genetically adapted to be tolerant of heavy metals; metal-tolerant plants do not compete well in noncontaminated sites; selection is so strong that genetic adaptation to contaminated sites takes place even though there is potential for gene flow from nearby nontolerant populations; even relatively low levels of contamination antiviral supplements order atacand 8 mg visa, such as roadside lead pollution from auto exhaust in urban areas, impose selection for metal tolerance. This adaptation of plants to heavy metal contamination has been of particular interest because it is a character that appears to have evolved in part in response to human disturbance. Evolutionary studies of heavy metal tolerance have contributed to strategies for dealing with contaminated soils on several levels. First, such studies have provided evidence for the toxic effects of heavy metal contamination on nonadapted genotypes. Prior to these evolutionary studies, the presence of plants on some contaminated sites had led to some dangerous misperceptions; as recently as 1972, the National Academy of Sciences concluded that lead had no toxic effects on plants, since plants could grow on contaminated soils!. Second, evolutionary 2 studies have contributed to the reclamation and revegetation of contaminated sites. Finally, evolutionary studies have shown that the mechanism for metal tolerance is uptake, not exclusion, such that metal-tolerant genotypes are also metal accumulators. This last insight, in conjunction with physiological research on metal tolerant plants, has led to a growing use of plants as part of a cleanup technology for dealing with contaminated sites. Environmental Protection Agency, the projected costs of cleaning up metal-contaminated sites will be $35 billion over the next 5 years in the United States alone. Metal-accumulating plants that will play an important part in this cleanup process are being developed by such private-sector companies as Exxon, DuPont, and Phytotech in cooperation with the U. Bloodlines of Illuminati by: Fritz Springmeier, 1995 Introduction: I am pleased & honored to present this book to those in the world who love the truth. An Illuminati Grand Master once said that the world is a stage and we are all actors. Of course this was not an original thought, but it certainly is a way of describing the Illuminati view of how the world works. The people of the world are an audience to which the Illuminati entertain with propaganda. The speech was designed to push all of the warm fuzzy buttons of his listening audience that he could. The light of truth in this book will be too bright for some people who will want to return to the safe comfort of their darkness. Yet, many of the secrets of the Illuminati are locked up tightly simply because secrecy is a way of life. Billingtons who want to tell real historical facts rather than doctored up stories and myths. I have been an intense student of history since I could read, and I am deeply committed to the facts of history rather than the cover stories the public is fed to manipulate them. I do not fear the Illuminati taking over this country and doing away with the Constitution, because they took over this country long ago, and the Constitution has not technically been in effect due to Presidential emergency decrees since W. Perfect love for Almighty God casts out our fear for the situation He has place us in. They control the process of government, they control the process of information flow, they control the process of creating money and finally they control Christendom. This volume is simply the first of two volumes which is published to give an overview of what the Illuminati is. In short the Illuminati are generational Satanic bloodlines which have gained the most power. When brought together, the facts of this book will begin to speak for themselves without me. Some people after they have read my material have gone out into their own geographic area and seen for themselves that a small group of people control their nation and the world from behind the scenes. They have seen for themselves the power that secret societies exercise from behind the scenes. This book has not been put out with the luxury of ghost writers, editors, a paid staff of researchers and a large budget. There is so much for me to communicate about the Illuminati, who they are, what their rituals are like, and how they control the world that it has taken several years of writing to begin to give people a fully cohesive picture. Finally, after a number of requests that I assemble my writings exposing the top 13 Illuminati bloodlines, I have taken the time to put it all together in a book with a comprehensive index. Long ago in the dark unwritten pages of human history, powerful kings discovered how they could control other men by torture, magical practices, wars, politics, religion and interest taking. These elite families designed strategies and tactics to perpetuate their occult practices. Layers upon layers of secrecy have hidden these families from the profane masses, but many an author has touched upon their existence. I began my research when I began to get first hand reports from very informed people that an elite group did rule the world. My investigation into the Illuminati, led me to read and pray about thousands of books. The quantity of books, newspapers, magazines and manuscripts and papers which were read to get me to where I am today numbers in the many thousands. I do not know how many nights I stayed up studying and finally collapsed into sleep with blurred red eyes. I do know that I was driven enough in my study that I often would not stop until my eyes and mind could go no further. Men and women with sharp intellects like Edith Star Miller (author of Occult Theocracy) and Alexander Hislop (author of the Two Babylons) have tried to research the occult world and the connections between the different groups. His book shows that there is a continuity between the ancient occultism of the Mystery Religions and modern day religion. Holy Grail and its first sequel the Messianic Legacy gave me a deep insightful look into the 13th bloodline. But my understanding has been lifted by countless other investigators, who are worthy of praise because they dared to challenge the power structure to get to the real facts. One of these bloodlines was the Ishmaeli bloodline from which a special elite line developed alchemy, assassination techniques, and other occult practices. The royalty of the tribe of Dan have descended down through history as a powefful Satanic bloodline. This was the Satanic House of David with their blood which they believe is not only from the House of David but also from the lineage of Jesus, who they claim had a wife and children. Down through the years the occult world has remained hidden from the history books. The Mystery Religions each had their secret 2 councils which ruled them, and these councils themselves came under the guidance of a secret supreme Grand Council or Governing Body. When I first began investigating the Illuminati a clear picture developed that the history books were doctored, and that great power was concentrated in the hands of oligarchies around the world. Interestingly, upon very close scrutiny and examination the investigator finds that the elite have perpetuated their power for centuries, and have worked hand in glove with other elites to control the masses. When seen in better light, wars between kings no longer appear as wars between elite factions, but contrived wars to control the masses by their greedy elite masters. The answer may not be the answer some might expect, because power comes in many shapes and sizes. In fact, due to the evil dark nature of these evil bloodlines they have traditionally tried to remain secret. I am indebted to people who have stepped out of the generational Satanic bloodlines of the Illuminati and who have given their lives to Christ for many of the tips which got my investigations on the right track. This book tells what many witnesses of generational Satanism would like to tell, but are too intimidated to tell. Witnesses like Tom Collins, and John Todd, and David Hill have tried to testify what they themselves saw-they each were destroyed. Several people from different places have confirmed that there are 13 Illuminati bloodlines. It is possible that my list is off on a name or two, but if it might be off, it can not be off much, if any. David Hill, who was investigating the Illuminati, lost his life because he had been close to the inside as a high ranking Freemason who worked for the Mafia. He had asked questions and began to dig into who pulled the strings in this country. Both David and I discovered the names of some of the more obvious powerful families. However, this is only double talk designed to bolster the superstructure of delusion that Communists are the enemies of all Capitalists. But each round of validation I have received is a pleasant encouragement that others have seen the same things. It was a pleasant surprise to see that this researcher had singled out some of the same families as I had. Some of the allied families if not all of them probably have intermarried somewhere with one of these bloodlines. Because this book is a collection of things which I have written over the years allow me to review what was written. In 1991, I first self-published my Be Wise As Serpents manuscript which exposed the top 13 families. In 1992, I began my newsletter to continue exposing the Illuminati, and came out with some monographs exposing the Monarch Mind Control program and the Illuminati Plans/methods to create earthquakes. This book is a collection of things, I, Fritz Springmeier, wrote between 1991 and 1995 about the top 13 families. Volume two will explain how the Illuminati control the world, and what some of their beliefs are, and about their secret and semi-secret organizations. The two books will provide perhaps the most indepth complete picture of the 13 top Illuminati families that has been done to date. In fact, I know of no other book which is devoted to exposing the top 13 Illuminati families. These two books will give the details behind what was written, "the whole world lieth in wickedness" and that the god of this world is in its full reality Satan. John Jacob Astor was born in Walldorf, Duchy of Baden (Germany) from a Jewish bloodline. Although the story is that he came to America penniless-and that may be true-he soon joined the Masonic Lodge, and within 2-3 years had become the Master of the Holland Lodge No. An example of just one Lodge #8 member is Archibald Russell, 1811 1871, whose father was President of a real hotbed of Illuminati action for many years: the Royal Society of Edinburgh). This is rather interesting considering Astor could not speak Englishwhen he arrived in America, and supposedly was very poor. For instance, one time later in life at a meal given for elites, when his hands got dirty at the table he reached over and used the shirt of the man beside him to wipe his hands. The original financial break came by carrying out a series of shady and crooked real estate deals in the N. The next breakcame when two men who are now known to have been in the Illuminati gave John Jacob Astor a special government privilege. But Astor got special permission from these two men for his ship to sail with its cargo. Astor strangely profited greatly from the War of 1812, which crippled almost all the other American shippers. Astor also worked together with George Clinton, another member of the Illuminati, on land deals. Even at that period in history, British intelligence worked for the Committee of 300 and for the Thirteen Top Families, it is interesting then, that John Coleman who had access as an intelligence agent to secret documents, discovered that the original John Jacob Astor was also a British secret agent. The Thirteen Families have very intimate roles with the American and British intelligence cults. Prior to 1817, John Jacob Astorentered into the fur trade and remained the biggest player in the fur tradeuntil he got out of it in 1834. Bear in mind, white people had been trapping furs in the New World for several centuries, and the Indians for who knows how long. Then this guy Astor comes along and in a few years totally owns 1 the whole industry!. Again this could only have happened, because the occult power of this Astor family gave them the right. Obviously, others in the Committee of 300 had to step aside, if his position in the hierarchy had not given Astor the right, believe me the other families that originally controlled the fur trade would have gotten rid of Astor. Today, perhaps in honor of the family that originally took interest in it, Astoria is a real hot-bed for the secret Satanic covens in Oregon. And finally for some reason, John Jacob Astor was also on good relations with the politicians of the day, perhaps because most of them were Freemasons too. For a few years John Jacob Astor had participated in the opium trade, but in 1818-he publicly quit running opium to China. It is clear repeatedly from history that Astor was privy to inside information in the government, and maintained his own courier system. The Financial Panic of 1837 allowed him to foreclose on a large number of mortgages. Astor became a banker, and sat on the board of 5 directors of the new national bank that Hamilton created for the U. Astor also was fairly active during his life as a Freemason, holding several more key positions in the secret lodge life. In contrast, to some of the other top families, the Astors perferred not to sit on boards of corporations they controlled. In 1890, a real estate expert calculated the Astors owned 1/20 of New York City real estate. After making their fortune while residing in the New York area, the Astors by and large have all gone to England. One of the many foundations that the Astors created was the Vincent Astor Foundation, which is controlled from England by the Astors and has in the range of $100 million tax exempt dollars. The Vincent Astor Foundation has typically given to Catholic and Episcoplian needs, among other things. Imagine how much influence that gives them, when the library is receiving regular help for general support. Vincent Astor (now deceased) was a member of 41 private clubs, To give an idea of how much power just one of the many Astor men wield some of the businesses Vincent was involved 2 include: director American Express Company dir. Sciences(notice these last two like so many elite controlled organizations are heavily involved in the spread of the evolution theory. This headship is passed down as a birthright within the different branches of the family, just as any King passes on his throne. Of course, like many of the other elite famIlies, the Astors have theIr Maine property to get away and relax.
The Russell family will of course have its own turn to have an article about them in this newsletter anti viral entry inhibitors purchase atacand 16 mg on line. John Smith now puts out the theory contained in his book Alger Hiss: the True Story which claims Alger Hiss was framed how hiv infection occurs buy atacand 4mg on-line. Sutton does an excellent iob in his book on the Skull & Bones Order in describing how McGeorge Bundy received preferential treatment all through his life hiv infection rates among prostitutes discount 16mg atacand. Consistently hiv infection rate in ottawa atacand 8mg lowest price, McGeorge Bundy got jobs for which there were thousands of better candidates hiv infection rate haiti buy atacand 16 mg with amex. McGeorge Bundy went to Yale where he was initiated into the Skull & Bones in 1940 hiv infection rates increase purchase atacand in united states online. Not only was he made a captain he was placed on staff to plan the logistics and other details of the invasion of Sicily and the Normandy Invasion hiv infection rates zimbabwe best 16mg atacand. How can a greenhorn without experience have the experience to know how much supplies hiv transmission statistics worldwide cheap atacand 16 mg fast delivery, etc. Bear in mind, that these calculations are for battles in which the wrong combination of supplies could mean death or defeat for a unit. The answer is obviously no, even if his father (The Order) is in the Pentagon as an aide to the Secretary of War (The Order). Then McGeorge without any experience or credentials in economics becomes a consultant to the Economic Cooperation Administration. Christians may recognize from the instruction that the Bible gives that pride warps our abilities to accurately see. How much pride has been installed in men like McGeorge that they feel comfortable to hop from one unqualified position to another and to make weighty decisions. How does anyone become Dean of a prestigious University department after four years of teaching. Not only has McGeorge been treated as if he is an instant military genius, an economic whiz, now he is bead of the arts and sciences. From 1961 to 1966 he is the Special Assistant for National Security Affairs to the President. For instance on pages 177-178, Sutton quotes a conversation between McGeorge Bundy, Dean Achison (Scroll & Key-another llluminati initiation point), and President Kennedy recorded in a memorandum. In 1966, McGeorge was appointed President of the Ford Foundation, another Illuminati foundation that is promoting their agenda. President, a position that Howe was unqualified for, except that Howe was a Skull & Bones 8 brother and was a team player that would help promote the New Worid Order agenda with its Hegelian philosophy and socialism. Both of the Fords on the Foundation board resigned in disgust at the way these Skull and Boners were using the Ford Foundation. To clarify to the reader what this all means allow me to inform you about the structures Satan has built. Pure Satanism in order to function easier has set up some branches which are secret, but if the public hears about these branches, they have a veneer of respectability. Hermes is credited for the grossly evil Satanic witchcraft rituals that the ancient Egyptians and modern Satanism continue to practice. As I was just writing, a number of branches of the Illuminati were created with the same pattern as the Bavarian Illuminati, and these branches sometimes refer to themselves as Illuminati-and rightly so since they are integral part of Satanism. Perhaps the "Christ consciousness they seek justifies in their minds calling themselves "exclusively Christian. Membership in Societas Rosicruciana has included such notable Satanists such as A. Within a nation the arena are divided up into provinces, each of which has a "college"-their fancy word for a satanic lodge. An interesting point in light of what I have printed in other newsletters, the Mass. One of the most knowledgeable people to try to expose the New World Order and the Satanic hierarchy behind it said, "It remains for the student to follow evvery line of enquiry to the point of concentration where nil threads are gathered and systematically manipulated for the eventual destruction of Christian civilization. The Bundy family has been a very powerful family in American history which has managed to keep itself out of the limelight. Congressman Reece, a real hero tried to go farther & expose the connections between Hiss, tho Carnegie Endowment Found. Both the Astor and Bundy families have been written about by others, and I had more information on both families than I needed for my articles. In fact I left out worthwhile details in both artides in order to keep the articles to a comfortable length. She has associated with a long list of key Illuminati men and at least a few known Satanists, but this is only the barest of dues that she might have anything to do with the Illuminati herself. If any other ex-hierarchy person is reading this, perhaps this will trigger some memories for you. This is a meeting that is held twice yearly, and to which the Rothschilds and all the mother families attend. The meeting is inside in a big room, and the Grande Mother on the throne was a Collins. The Collins family has been kept out of the limelight because they have more occult power than the Rothschilds or the Rockefellers. To make money this Collins family does something financially, such as deal with the exchange of money. The Grande Mother Collins dressed in black has an ebony and gold moon shaped throne that she can automatically rotate by pushing a pedal with her foot. Behind her sits the Grand Council with 13 members -this might be or might not be the Grand Druid Council that you will read about further on. The difference between this council in 1955 is that it was all males, while the council in 1978 has several women on it. One of the first things done was to lay before her feet small gold bricks (shaped like small bricks and made of pure gold). Two boys, who were taken to be her sons, one of whom was Tom Collins, (Tom was later gunned down by the Illuminati) were near her throne. As only the most honored and powerful dared be in the vicinity of her throne, this showed that these two Collins boys were powerful. The boys passed out papers, which had time tables written on them of things that were to happen. The Ark of the Covenant was discussed, where it was hidden in Africa, and a ritual mocking the Ark of the Covenant was held. Seven children in white were brought in from generational Satanic families and presented before Grande Mother Collins. She would move her scepter with a 1 snake up and down striking the floor to show approval of a child candidate. However, the descriptions of this occult John the Baptist do match BenjamIn Creme. Benjamin Creme was born in 1924, and was deeply into the occult and witchcraft even when he was a boy. Creme calls these master spirits simply the hierarchy, Christians know it is the demonic hierarchy. Because all these things are planned out well in advance, it would have been very appropriate if Creme had been at a high level planning meeting in 1955. There have been massive secret gold shipments out of the United States and Russia. Collins was a reporter for several important newspapers and worked as an editor in the Washington and New York offices of the Associated Press. He was the chief newsman for Reuters (Illuminati controlled press) and the Associated Press for many stories coming out of the Orient. As those who investigate the Illuminati find out, the Illuminati control the press. Here was a man who helped do it for them Last newsletter issue (1/15/93) went into some detail about how important the Satanic Societas Rosicruciana is in relation to the Satanic groups such as the O. The Societas Rosicruciana is definitely a high level exclusive Illumanati organization. In Be Wise As Serpents in the second section in a chapter entitled Heresy Interlocks with Power on the 8th page, I gave the names of people who were on that secret Grande Druid Council in the Spring of 1978. Each of those people are powerful witches, and have a great deal of power in the world. To be a traditionalist means that she holds the view that only those people who are born to families with satanic power and witches in their family background can be true witches Obviously, the Collins family has a long history of witchcraft if she holds this view. Remember, that the leading Satanists feel they have special blood, the top ones feel they are gods. Even Grande Masters may teach their selected children they are the god which created the children. She got the Security and Exchange Commission to investigate his church, which caused the church economic hardships. Even mainline Christian ministers are expected to follow directives of the Grande Druid Council which is said to operate under the orders of the Rothschilds. Collins was in the Illuminati, but for some reason the Lord changed his heart and he began to talk to churches about what is really going on. He was gunned down in a Grocery store parking lot, and has been used as an example by the Illuminati to anyone else who dares utter a word. Two weeks after Reagan was elected, a beautiful Mercades pulled up to where this Christian brother was working. The guy who got out was obviously rich-his suit had to be in the neighborhood of $800 and his wife had fox furs around her neck. They said their son was going to work for the state and they wanted to look for a home for him. Then he dragged the woman to the Mercedes giving her hell all the way for talking, and when they got in proceeded to physically slap her around. Many of the Satanic hierarchy live their entire lives without uttering a word to anyone anything about the hidden Satanic side of their lives. As a rule they find very respectable cover lives in society-the more respectable the better to cover their hidden lives. They are capable of the most horrendous things, but to everyone who know them, they are the most likable, intelligent normal people. The Satanic hierarchy and their Satanism is clearly the most secret religion in the world. They are a priesthood that rules the world through political leaders that they place in power. And because of their power, they have the ability to suppress a great deal of the publicity that could arise from their numerous activities. To describe the security methods employed to keep high level Satanism secret could take an entire book. And what kind of clout would you have with national governments and police forces to get even governments to provide security for you. The actual involvement of the occult in a criminal case usually turns out to be secondary, insignificant, or nonexistent. The law enforcement perspective on occult crime requires avoiding the paranoia that has crept into this issue. Unless hard evidence is obtained and corroborated, police officers should avoid being frightened into believing that satanists are performing criminal ceremonies requiring investigation. An unjustified crusade against such activity could result in wasted resources, unwanted damage to reputations, and disruption of civil liberties. Except for the testimony of eye-witnesses, there is little evidence of what happens at hierarchy meetings. There are numerous clues, but they are rejected by most people who refuse to accept that the Satanic hierarchy exists. Before the 1960s, and the space programs man had not seen the far side of the moon. The hierarchy are professionals at Satanism and are really pros at obtaining satanic power through ritual, deeds and worldly power. In contrast there is great deal of physical evidence from the coven levels (the lowest level) that periodically surfaces-robes, candies made of fat, athames, altars, dead animals, ritual sites, etc. The lower levels are not concerned with developing power such as what Satan has, they simply enjoy being evil, and in that respect are rather crude in their exercise of evil. In the l970s she was in several horror movies and picked up the title "Queen of the Horror Films" (p. In 1977 and 1978 Joan was nude in two sexy films (not her first) which were expected to do better at the box office than they did, neither of the titles of these films bear repeating. Besides her amazing beauty, her lack of morals made her a perfect fit for Hollywood. Moritz, which is an exclusive ski resort of the international set where Joan rubbed shoulders with Niarchos and Aristotle Onassis. Michael Collins writes about himself, "Fortunately, I have been a poor student all my life, and my parents, concealing their disappointment, seldom pushed me. He is not even a nominal Christian as far as I can tell, he states dryly that "no" he "did not find God" when he went to the moon. It looked like the clues were leading in the direction that he might be part of the elite, when I can across one sentence that changed my mind. Michael Collins wrote, "I feel just as thankful today that I live in the United States of America as I did before flying in space, and I have no desire for this country to merge into a United States of the World. Michael Collins has some really interesting and in a sense inspiring things to say about what seeing the earth from way out in space meant to his life. Or as the radio commercial describes sunset: "When the sun just goes away from the sky. And all these people who use their imaginations and belittie the earth because they think some other planet in another galaxy is better, should do some space travel. Like most top Illuminati families, the Collins have spread al over so that even the West Coast has some members of this satanic bloodline.
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Not surprisingly hiv infection rates uk 2013 buy atacand 16 mg visa, some proportions are significantly different between ethnicities and play an important role in describing facial aesthetics hiv infection rates ireland purchase atacand 16 mg. Knowing aesthetical proportions in the relevant population is very useful in a case of surgical craniofacial intervention [18 hiv infection to symptom timeline buy atacand once a day, 20-22 acute primary hiv infection symptoms purchase atacand master card, 28] antiviral proteins secreted by lymphocytes discount atacand 4 mg without a prescription. Identification of some of the craniofacial landmarks can be challenging how the hiv infection cycle works order atacand 8 mg without prescription, especially landmarks whose location depends on the position of the head or are described only generally (such as the highest or the most distant point of the head) or are placed on bony prominences underlying the skin (like most soft tissue landmarks) antiviral y antibiotico al mismo tiempo order atacand toronto. Figures 3 5 illustrate major cranial landmarks used in craniofacial anthropometry antiviral ganciclovir buy 16mg atacand with amex. A more comprehensive definition for each landmark is detailed in the List of Terms and Abbreviation and Materials and Methods Chapter. Most of these landmarks are identified by using a spreading calliper (as a maximum distance between two landmarks) or by palpating. The most informative and widely used cranial measurements are: Maximum head length (g-op) Maximum head height (v-gn) Maximum head width (eu-eu) the location of landmarks, used to calculate these measurements is illustrated in the following picture (Figure 6) Figure 6. Craniofacial surface landmarks of the head and face in frontal and lateral positions. A long and narrow dolichocephalic head would most likely demonstrate a protrusive nasomaxillary component to allow more efficient air flow. The nasomaxillary component would be also lowered relative to the mandible, resulting in posterior location of the latter. On the contrary, a wide and short brachycephalic head would most likely demonstrate a short, wide and more posterior located nasomaxillary component, allowing sufficient air flow. The mandible in this case would be located more anterior, protruding from the face. Such as dolichocephalic heads are more common in the North African, North European and Middle Eastern populations, while the Asian population is more associated with the brachycephalic heads. Historically, the European population has been the most extensively studied by anthropologists, with the number of anthropometric studies comparing other population groups being quite limited [22, 28, 30]. In recent years, several studies have compared 11 | P a g e additional population groups, such as African and Asian populations [17, 30-34]. Specifically, the greatest difference between these three populations is found in the head height and width. The head in the African population is the largest in length and smallest in width. In the Chinese population, the head is the largest in width and smallest in length. The head in the Caucasian population is generally wider than African, but narrower than in the Chinese population. As a result, they cannot be efficiently used for descriptive population differentiation, especially in the modern cosmopolitan society with a high degree of admixture. Facial (soft tissue) landmarks and measurements Traditional anthropometry treats the face as a two-dimensional object. Most facial measurements cover the vertical plane (facial length), some cover the horizontal plane (facial breadth) and only a few cover the facial depth. However, the use of a 3-Dimentional scanner can provide extensive information of a facial surface and potential measurements (as detailed in Section 1. In the traditional anthropometry, the direct assignment of the craniofacial landmarks is an integral part of the measurements. There is a need for location of the craniofacial landmarks by palpating, followed by manual measurement of the linear and angular distances between these landmarks using a calliper. In the 2D or 3D facial images however, the location of landmarks and relevant measurements performed indirectly. A difference between these approaches may introduce errors in the digital approach as well as significant challenges if a comparison between the measurements obtained by different methods is required. A detailed list of the craniofacial landmarks used in this study is presented in the Chapter 2. Facial measurements of the horizontal plane: Binocular width (ex-ex) Maximum facial breadth (zy-zy) Nose width (al-al) Mouth width (ch-ch) Mandible width (go-go) Figure 9. According to Farkas [18], facial index measurements can be divided into four main groups, which used to categorize human faces: F. Specifically, European noses tend to be longer and narrower than African and set more highly on the face. Europeans usually have narrow faces, higher cheekbones, wider cranium and more prominent foreheads than Africans. In addition, jaws in the African population protrude more from the face than do European jaws. Asians typically have wide and flat faces, wider spaced eyes and flat supranasal regions. In general, Europeans have smaller faces than most non-European populations, in spite of being taller and heavier than many non European populations. Methods of facial landmarks analysis There are two types of craniofacial anthropometrical measurements: direct and indirect. Direct anthropometric measurements involve using traditional measuring equipment such as sliding and spreading callipers and measuring tape. The advantage of direct measurements is that this process is objective, reliable and inexpensive. The examiner has full access to all the bony landmarks, reducing potential errors in incorrect location of these landmarks in indirect methods. The main limitation of direct measurements is that the examination may take approximately an hour or even longer, making it ineffective for large sample size and working with children. The indirect approach involves using 2D or 3D images for performing craniofacial measurements. Since the publication of the first English-language manuscript on anthropometry by Ales Hrdlicka in 1920 [35], which introduced a set of 14 cranial and facial measurements, the methods for accurate measurements of the craniofacial features have undergone significant changes. Using regular photographs (2D images) for collecting indirect measurements is also possible. However, 3D image capturing technologies provide a more accurate image than 2D photos, with a computer file output, that can be processed further by automatically calculating craniofacial measurements. In addition, 2D photographs do not reflect the natural anatomy of the face and as a result do not provide information on the facial surface, omitting useful information. As an alternative to the traditional direct measurements, the use of digital equipment allows extraction of the Euclidean coordinates (x, y and z) for each landmark and subsequent calculation of various distances in an automatic and fast manner, without the need to perform each measurement separately. The main limitation of the 3D (as well as 2D) image-capturing techniques is the image processing, which includes facial landmark location and extraction. Automatic facial image processing has been explored in several studies, but is still under development and standardization [36, 37, 44, 47-49]. It involves application of special algorithms, which recognize specific anatomical features and craniofacial landmarks. This approach usually involves using a set of images that have been processed manually for location of these landmarks, which are used by a computer program to automatically recognise the same landmarks on a new image based on the similarity. However, current algorithms used for this purpose are still not able to accurately recognize facial landmarks on various faces. Given that each face is different from another, this approach does not always produce an accurate outcome. As a result, most landmarks generated using this approach have to be re-examined manually, which may significantly decrease the advantage of this method versus manual 17 | P a g e landmark allocation. Craniofacial reconstruction Facial reconstruction, which uses anthropometric measurements from skull remains to estimate the facial appearance of a person is an important tool in forensic investigation. Facial reconstruction is based on the fact that the bony cranium represents the supporting basis for soft facial tissue [50]. The reconstruction of the nose, mouth and ears are particularly difficult, as these soft tissues are not supported by a bony frame and the cartilage under these facial features is often not present in skeletal remains [51, 52]. In addition, other phenotypic features such as pigmentation and hair texture cannot be reconstituted from anthropometric measurements and are usually a best guess by the anthropologist, based on inferred ancestry. As a result, most current facial reconstruction methods focus on generating an average face, which may or may not resemble the original one [52-54]. A better understanding of the craniofacial genetics and in particular, knowing the genetic factors behind the size and shape of the specific craniofacial features, would allow potential prediction of these traits and more accurate craniofacial reconstruction from a skull or even a little piece of biological (even non-skeletal) evidence. Craniofacial development and embryogenetics this section briefly outlines the major stages of the craniofacial embryonic development in Homo sapiens, the genes which regulate this complex process and discusses craniofacial malformations that may occur as a result of genetic mutation in these genes. Human craniofacial development is a complex multistep process, involving numerous signalling cascades of factors that control neural crest development, followed by a number of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that control outgrowth, patterning and skeletal differentiation. The mechanisms involved in this process include various gene expression and protein translation patterns, which regulate cell migration and positioning. Most facial features of the developing human embryo are recognizable from as early as 5 weeks post conception (Figure 10). This influence may be a function of various factors, including differences in nutrition (influencing hormones and growth factors) as well as social interaction. Transverse section through 20-day-old embryo depicting neural folds and neural crest formation. Central to the development of the head is the concept of segmentation, evident in development of the hindbrain and branchial arch systems. Together with migrating neural crest cells, these systems give rise to most of the head and neck compartments (Figure 12). Interactions between signalling molecules cause the medial portion of ectoderm to begin to assume a neural character (green) while lateral portions of ectoderm begin to take on a non-neural character (blue). The prechordal plate mesendoderm (pcp) and the buccopharyngeal membrane (bpm) are indicated. Neural crest cells start to delaminate from the border region between the neuroectoderm and surface ectoderm. The neural crest is a pluripotent cell population that plays a critical role in the development of the vertebrate head. This ectomesenchymal tissue arises from the crests of the neural fold during the gastrulation process of the embryonic disk (Figure 11). Unlike most parts of the body, the facial mesenchyme (whole viscerocranium and part of the neurocranium) is formed principally from the neural crest and not the mesoderm of the embryonic third germ layer [63, 64]. The cranial part begins its development as early as the middle of the third week post coitum. By the fourth week, neural crest cells migrate extensively throughout the embryo in four overlapping domains: cephalic, trunk, sacral and cardiac. Subsequently, the cephalic neural crest cells migrate from the posterior midbrain and hindbrain region into the branchial arch system. The ectomesenchymal neural crest cells then interact with epithelial and mesodermal cell populations present within the arches, leading to the formation of craniofacial bones, 21 | P a g e cartilage and connective tissues. The dermatocranium (roof of the skull), is however formed not from cartilage, but from direct ossification of the deep layers of the dermis. Cells, which migrate within the cranial paraxial mesoderm form somitomeres, which subsequently develop into the muscles of the face and jaws. Other neural crest cell populations provide mesenchyme for angiogenesis to produce blood vessels, in addition to others, which will develop later to melanocytes for skin and eye pigmentation. The first is called prosencephalic centre and is derived from prechordal mesoderm. The second is called rhombencephalic centre, and induces the middle and lower thirds of the face (Figures 13 and 14). Simultaneously with these processes develops the forebrain, which induces multiple signalling areas in the ectoderm. These areas control the differential cell proliferation of the nasal area in the upper face region. Subsequently, these signalling cascades induce the ectomesenchyme to develop five prominences, such as paired maxillary and mandibular and single frontonasal, which give rise to the specific facial features. Disruption to any one of these pathways, interfering with a normal craniofacial three dimensional developmental process, may lead to a variety of craniofacial syndromes including disruption of brain morphogenesis, usually accompanied by facial malformations. Interestingly, there are a number of known malformations of the limbs, which are expressed together with various craniofacial abnormalities [65-68]. This is most likely due to the overlap in signalling pathways involving limb and head development. Therefore, genes that are involved in limb development may also influence normal variation in craniofacial features. Craniofacial embryogenetics the cranial and facial tissues are comprised of a large number of complex structures whose development is controlled by a wide number of genes, expressed in a specific pattern during embryonic maturation (Figure 6). Although many of mutations in these genes can lead to facial anomalies, currently there is little information available regarding specific polymorphisms, which can be identified as potentially indicative of normal variation in craniofacial shape and other facial characteristics. Possible approaches for finding genes and markers associated with normal variation in the craniofacial appearance the identification of the markers responsible for normal craniofacial appearance can be achieved by taking two main approaches: 1. This approach has successfully identified genes and mutations involved in 26 | P a g e many complex disease and traits [70, 71]. In spite of being a very powerful approach, the requirement for such a large sample size and the need to type millions of genetic markers, as well as the high cost, renders the approach not feasible for this research project. It can be performed using one or all of the following pathways: o Identification of genes previously shown to be involved in normal human facial appearance and subsequently selecting markers, which may have an effect on the phenotype (as detailed in section 1. Genes that result in disease phenotype may also affect normal variation of that phenotype, similar to genes involved in Albinism and normal pigmentation [72]. Based on visual differences in craniofacial appearance between various populations, it may be hypothesized that markers with high Fst values, which are located in genes expressed in various stages of craniofacial embryonic development, would be involved in determination of the normal craniofacial appearance. Genetics of the normal craniofacial development in human Until recently, molecular cascades that control human craniofacial development, and particularly of specific facial features, have been poorly understood. In 2012, a further two studies identified an association between several markers and specific craniofacial anthropometric measurements [76, 77]. The limited number of studies on the normal human craniofacial appearance illustrates the demand for a complimentary approach in searching for the craniofacial candidate genes and markers. Craniofacial syndromes with known genetic mutations in human and model organisms the cranium is composed of two major groups of bones: those that surround the brain called neurocranium (composed of desmocranium and chondrocranium) and those that surround the oral cavity, pharynx and respiratory passages known as viscerocranium. At birth, the cranial vault surrounding the brain consists of seven calvaria bones with adjoining bones separated by fibrous joints (growth centres) called calvarial sutures (Figure 16). Interestingly, the bones of the jaws and facial skeleton (viscerocranium) are evolutionary younger than chondrocranium and more susceptible for developmental defects [79]. While serious malformations in these structures may lead to different facial abnormalities, polymorphisms in genes responsible for the development of the cranial vault and specifically neurocranium, might influence normal cranial shape [80, 81]. The blue line indicates an approximate border between the neurocranium and viscerocranium. There are at least 250 syndromes, that display various craniofacial abnormalities such as anencephaly, holoprosencephaly, exencephaly, as well as skeletal and facial defects, such as cleft lip/palate, (discussed in more detail in Section 1. The facial defects may be restricted to specific regions of the head, although are often linked to cardiac and aortic arch defects or developmental limb defects, reflecting the common origin of these structures. One of the most common craniofacial defects is craniosynostosis, caused by premature fusion of calvaria bones. Craniosynostosis can occur sporadically and termed non syndromic or be inherited (usually as a dominant trait) and termed syndromic [82, 83]. Syndromic craniosynostosis usually involves additional abnormalities of the skull, as well as normal phenotypes such as long or beaked nose, protrusive or retrusive jaws, wide eyes and large brow ridges. As a result, a research on syndromic craniosynostosis disorders may provide additional insights on the normal craniofacial morphology [74]. A number of other genetic syndromes are known to affect facial connective tissue and specifically the cartilage. This group includes conditions with various chromosomal aberrations such as Down syndrome, Fragile X Syndrome and Turner Syndrome [101-108] as well as specific mental conditions, such as schizophrenia [109-111]. For example, people suffering from Down syndrome demonstrate brachycephaly, smaller and flatter cranial base, almond-shaped eyes, epicantic folds, reduced orbital height and width, small nasal bones, mandibular prognathism and ear dysmorphology. Facial features of the Fragile X Syndrome are characterised by long and narrow face, prominent forehead and large ears. Females patients with Turner syndrome demonstrate distinct facial features, such as downward slanting eyes, prominent earlobes and very broad necks. Patients suffering from schizophrenia demonstrate narrowing and reduction of the mid to lower face and frontonasal prominences, including reduced width and posterior displacement of the mouth, lips, and chin, increased width of the upper face, mandible, and skull base, with lateral displacement of the cheeks, eyes, and orbits and greater downward displacement of the tip of the nose. Interestingly, the association of 22q chromosomal region with schizophrenia by Scutt et. In fact, approximately 25% of adults with 22q11 deletion have schizophrenia [113]. The great number of craniofacial disorders may provide an indication of the number of genes involved in craniofacial embryogenesis and may partially explain molecular interactions between various factors involved in this process (Figure 17). Molecular interactions between several known factors involved in cranial sutures development and malformations, which might develop as a result of various mutations in corresponding genes. Table 1 briefly summarises information on human syndromes, with their respective craniofacial malformations and genes involved.
